Discuss Variables That Influence Perceptions of Social Support.

Middle range theory topic social support analyze and evaluate the social support middle range theory. Identify application of nursing theories into clinical practice 1 referenceAPA formatVariables That Influence Perceptions of Social SupportA number of variables affect the social support that is given and received or experienced. These include perceptions of the need and availability for support, timing, motivation for providing support, duration, direction, life stage, the source of support, and social network.The provider of the social support first recognizes another’s need for social support before determining the response to the need. If there is a mismatch in the provider’s and recipient’s perceptions of the need for support or the type of support that is provided, the recipient may not consider the support to be helpful (Dunkel-Schetter & Bennett, 1990; Dunkel-Schetter & Skokan, 1990). Providers of support may assume that the recipient who is experiencing stress needs support. If this assumption is inaccurate, the act of support could result in feelings of dependency, inadequacy, and lower self-esteem (Dunkel-Schetter, Blasband, Feinstein, & Herbert, 1992). Research data suggest that the perception of the availability of support is more important for health and well-being than is the actual receiving of the support (Cohen, Gottlieb, & Underwood, 2001).Timing is also important, because the support needs of the recipient can change relative to the recipient’s appraisal of the situation over time (Jacobson, 1986; Norwood, 1996; Tilden, 1986). Social support is a dynamic process influenced by personal characteristics and situations. Changes that affect both the giving and receiving of social support include the nature of relationships from a historical perspective, expectations of support from one’s network, and personal coping skills (Lackner, Goldenberg, Arrizza, & Tjosvold, 1994).Motivation for providing social support can affect the quality of the support provided. A sense of obligation on the part of the provider may decrease the recipient’s satisfaction with the support (Hupcey, 1998a). Providers of social support are likely to consider the recipient’s responsibility and effort relative to the needed support and the costs to the provider that result from the act of support (Jung, 1988). The provider’s previous experiences with providing support and previous interactions with the intended recipient will also influence choices of support actions (Hupcey, 1998a).Duration of the support, referring to length of time or stability of the support, is a consideration for the chronically ill and persons who experience long-term loss (Cohen & Syme, 1985). The long-term effects of stressors on individuals may require ongoing support, as well as support from sources outside the usual social networks. For example, in a longitudinal study of the perceived support and support sources of older women with heart failure, the women identified paid helpers as sources of support at a later time in progression of their illness (Friedman, 1997).The direction of support may be unidirectional or bidirectional. Bidirectional support is characterized by mutuality and reciprocity (Stewart, 1993). Professional support is usually unidirectional. In family and intimate relationships, the roles of “helper” and “helpee” may alternate (Clark, 1983; Rook & Dooley, 1985). Reciprocity in social support is likely to reduce feelings of burden and strain in providers and inadequacy and lack of control in recipients (Albrecht & Adelman, 1987). The provision and receiving of social support vary over the life span. Some life stages offer more capability for providing social support, while other life stages require more receiving than giving of social support. Social support needs are greater during times of change and additional stress, such as during the birth of a child or with the loss of strength and function associated with aging.Individuals often identify family and friends as sources of support in comparison to professionals (Hupcey & Morse, 1997; Schaffer & Lia- Hoagberg, 1997). However, professionals can intervene to enhance the existing social support resources of clients or can act as surrogates to provide support not currently available in the client’s social network (Norbeck, 1988). To enhance informal and formal sources of support, professionals can develop and strengthen relationships with personal support networks, mutual aid groups, neighborhood support systems, volunteer programs, and community resources (Chien & Norman, 2009; Froland, Pancoast, Chapman, & Kimboko, 1981). Formal support is more likely to occur in institutional settings. Newsom, Bookwala, and Schulz (1997) found a high degree of formal support for older adults in nursing homes, residential care facilities, and congregate apartments. The instrumental support available in institutional settings was provided primarily by professional and nonprofessional paid staff. These formal support sources may also provide a sizeable amount of emotional support for older adults who have physical and cognitive challenges, because paid staff are more often available for older adults in group residences (Pearlman & Crown, 1992).The size of the social network is sometimes considered to be an indicator of social support. Key sources of support, including immediate family members and close friends, are distinguished from sources viewed as less important—other relatives, coworkers, church and community members, and professional caregivers (Griffith, 1985). However, a large social network does not necessarily guarantee that a large amount of support is present (Kahn & Antonucci, 1980). The quality of the relationships and availability of persons in the social network, as well as the number of persons in the network, contribute to the enacted social support. A variety of network members can better provide the range of needed social support actions. For example, in one study, persons with a cancer diagnosis perceived spouses or partners as helpful for their physical presence, while friends provided practical help (Dakof & Taylor, 1990). In another study with cancer patients, informational support was perceived as helpful from experts but not from friends or families (Dunkel-Schetter, 1984).